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More About This Title Corrosion and Materials in Hydrocarbon Production- A Compendium of Operational and EngineeringAspects
- English
English
Comprehensively covers the engineering aspects of corrosion and materials in hydrocarbon production
This book captures the current understanding of corrosion processes in upstream operations and provides a brief overview of parameters and measures needed for optimum design of facilities. It focuses on internal corrosion occurring in hydrocarbon production environments and the key issues affecting its occurrence, including: the types and morphology of corrosion damage; principal metallic materials deployed; and mitigating measures to optimise its occurrence. The book also highlights important areas of progress and challenges, and looks toward the future of research and development to enable improved and economical design of facilities for oil and a gas production.
Written for both those familiar and unfamiliar with the subject—and by two authors with more than 60 years combined industry experience—this book covers everything from Corrosion Resistant Alloys (CRAs) to internal metal loss corrosion threats, corrosion in injection systems to microbiologically influenced corrosion, corrosion risk analysis to corrosion and integrity management, and more, notably:
- Comprehensively covers the engineering aspects of corrosion and materials in hydrocarbon production
- Written by two, renowned experts in the field
- Offers practical guide to those unfamiliar with the subject whilst providing a focused roadmap to addressing the topics in a precise and methodical manner
- Covers all aspects of corrosion threat and remedial and mitigation measures in upstream hydrocarbon production applicable to sub-surface, surface, and transportation facilities
- Outlines technology challenges that need further research as a pre-cursor to moving the industry forward.
Operational and Engineering Aspects of Corrosion and Materials in Hydrocarbon Production is an excellent guide for both practicing materials and corrosion engineers working in hydrocarbons production as well as those entering the area who may not be fully familiar with the subject.
- English
English
Bijan Kermani, PhD is managing director of KeyTech, UK since 1999 and a visiting professor at University of Leeds and previously at UCL. He has over 40 years' experience of materials, metallurgy and corrosion in the oil and gas and steel industries focusing on materials optimisation, corrosion mitigation and integrity management. In addition, he manages innovative and step changer projects for multinational companies worldwide. He is a NACE Fellow, Fellow of Institute of Corrosion (ICorr), Fellow of Institute of Materials (IOM3), recipient of NACE 2007 Technical Achievement Award, Chartered Engineer, and Instructor for various NACE International courses.
Don Harrop has over 40 years' experience working primarily in the oil and gas industry addressing a broad range of materials and corrosion issues through research, technology development and front-line engineering. He is a past President and Honorary Fellow of the UK Institute of Corrosion (ICorr) and the European Federation of Corrosion (EFC).
- English
English
Forewords 11
Acknowledgement 12
Chapter 1: Introduction 14
Scope and Objectives 14
The Content 15
The Impact of Corrosion 15
The Overall Financial Impact 16
Principal Types of Corrosion in Hydrocarbon Production 16
Corrosion Threats 17
The Way Ahead: Positive Corrosion 17
Summary 18
References 19
Bibliography 19
Chapter 2: Carbon and low alloy steels 20
Steel Products 20
Structural Services 20
Pressure Containment 20
Development of Mechanical Properties 21
Heat Treatment 21
Normalising 21
Quenched and Tempering 21
Mechanical working. 21
Industrial Processes 22
Strengthening mechanisms 22
Solid Solution Strengthening 22
Grain Refinement 22
Mechanical Working 23
Dispersion Strengthening 23
Hardenability 23
Weldability 24
Linepipe Steels 24
Well Completion Downhole Tubulars 25
Internally Clad Materials 25
Summary 26
Bibliography 26
Chapter 3: Corrosion Resistant Alloys (CRAs) 28
Background 28
Alloying Elements, Microstructures and their Significance on Corrosion Performance 29
Alloying Elements 29
Improving Corrosion Resistance 29
Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number (PREN) 30
Schaeffler Diagram and its Application 30
Nickel and chromium equivalents 31
Common Types/Grades of CRA Used in the Hydrocarbon Production Systems 31
Nominal Compositions 31
Mechanical Properties and Strengthening Methods 32
Yield Strength 33
Bauschinger Effect 33
Yield Stress Derating with Temperature 34
Important Metallurgical Aspects of CRAs 34
Martensitic and Super Martensitic Stainless Steels (MSSs and SMSSs) 34
Duplex and Super Duplex Stainless Steels (DSSs and SDSSs) 35
Austenitic Stainless Steels (SSs) 35
Austenitic Fe and Ni Based Alloys 35
Titanium Alloys 36
Limits of Application 36
Selection Criteria 37
Selection Criteria Check List 37
Application of CRAs 37
Notable Points to Consider for Well Completion 38
Future Demands and Requirements 38
Summary 39
References 39
Bibliography 39
Chapter 4: Water Chemistry 40
Sources of Water 40
Water Chemistry 41
Other Impacts on Corrosivity 43
Mineral Scale 43
Bacterial analyses 43
Iron Sulphide 43
Other Chemicals 44
Water sampling locations and analysis techniques 44
Sampling 45
Interpretation of Results 46
Monitoring Corrosion Management Strategies 47
Influential Parameters in System Corrosivity 47
Summary 48
References 48
Bibliography 48
Chapter 5: Internal Metal Loss Corrosion Threats 50
CO2 Metal Loss Corrosion 50
The Mechanism 50
Types of Damage 51
Pitting 51
Mesa Type Attack 51
Flow-Induced Localised Corrosion 51
Key Influential Factors 52
Notable Parameters 52
The In-situ pH 53
The Effect of Organic Acid 53
Metal Loss CO2 Corrosion Prediction 53
Industry Practice 54
Metal Loss Corrosion in Mixed H2S/CO2 Containing Streams 55
Assessment Methods 56
Summary and Conclusions 57
References 57
Bibliography 58
Chapter 6: Environmental Cracking 60
Environmental Cracking Threat in Steels 60
EC Associated with Hydrogen Sulphide 60
Corrosion Implications and Mechanism 61
Types of H2S Corrosion Threat 62
Categories, Types, Manifestation, and Mitigation Measures of H2S EC Threats 62
Sulphide Stress Cracking (SSC): 62
Hydrogen Internal Pressure Effects 63
a. Hydrogen Blistering 63
b. HIC/SWC 63
c. SOHIC (Stress Oriented HIC) 65
Chloride Stress Corrosion cracking (Cl-SCC) 65
Cracking in Related Environments: 65
Operating Temperatures 65
Current Industry Practices 66
ISO 15156/NACE MR0175 66
Part 1 66
Part 2 66
Severity of Operating Conditions for CLASs 67
Key Governing Criteria 67
Part 3 67
Summary 68
Bibliography 68
Chapter 7: Corrosion in Injection Systems 69
The Intent 69
Injection Systems 69
Treated Water 70
Water Treatment Methods 71
Mechanical Treatment 71
Chemical Treatments 71
Oxygen Removal 71
Injectivity Problems, Erosion and Drag Reduction 72
Coagulants and filter aids 72
Bacterial growth and proliferation 72
Antifoam 72
Water Corrosivity 72
Water Quality 73
Means of Corrosion Prediction 73
Oldfield and Todd 73
Berger and Hau 74
The Appropriate Model 74
Materials Options 74
Tubing 74
CLAS 74
Low Cr Containing Steels 74
Plastic Coated Tubulars 75
Glass Reinforced Epoxy (GRE) Lined CLAS Tubing 75
CRAs 75
Pipelines and Piping 75
Bare CLAS 75
Internally Lined CLAS 76
CRAs 76
Supplementary Notes 76
Hydrotesting 76
Summary 78
References 79
Bibliography 79
Chapter 8: Corrosion Mitigation by the Use of Inhibitor Chemicals 80
Inhibitor Characteristics 80
Key Benefits 80
Inhibitor Formulation 81
Inhibitor Species and Functionality 81
Inhibitor Performance 82
Environmental Acceptance 84
Inhibitor Testing and Application 84
Operating Conditions 84
Inhibitor Testing/Selection 85
Inhibitor Application/Deployment 87
Continuous Injection 87
Field Evaluation 88
Wet Gas Lines 88
Downhole Inhibition 89
Summary 89
References 90
Bibliography 90
Chapter 9: Coating Systems 92
External Pipeline Coatings 92
Fusion-Bonded Epoxy (FBE) Coating 92
Polyolefin Coatings 93
Field Joint Coatings 94
Internal Coating and Lining 94
Plastic Coated Tubular (PCT) 94
Glass Reinforced Epoxy (GRE) Lined C-steel Tubing 95
Internal Coating of Tanks and Vessels 95
External Painting of Structures 95
Offshore Structures 95
Summary 96
References 96
Bibliography 97
Chapter 10: Corrosion Trending 98
The Purpose of Corrosion Trending 98
Corrosion Monitoring 99
Corrosion Rate Monitoring 99
Weight Loss Coupons 100
Electrical Resistance (ER) Probes 100
Electrochemical Methods 100
Locating Internal Corrosion Monitoring Devices 101
Erosion Rate Monitoring 103
Access Fittings 103
Cost Considerations 104
Safety Considerations 104
Corrosion Barrier Monitoring 104
Collection and Analysis of Real-Time Monitoring Data 105
Downhole Corrosion Monitoring 106
Inspection Techniques 107
Equipment Portability 107
Visualising Inspection Data 107
Intelligent Pigging 108
Future Considerations 108
Summary 109
References 109
Bibliography 109
Chapter 11: Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion 110
Main Features 110
The Primary Causes 111
Summary of Key Parameters 112
The Motive for Promotion of Corrosion by Micro-organisms 112
The Corrosion Process 112
Microbial Activity inside the Biofilms 113
Bridging surface to biofilm: 113
Summary Mechanism 114
Most Susceptible Locations and Conditions 115
Most MIC Prone Environments and Facilities: 115
Least MIC Prone Environments and Facilities: 115
Uncertain Limits and Conditions of Occurrence 115
Brief Overview 116
The Anticipated Damage Rate 117
Potential Prevention Measures 117
Biocide Treatments 117
Periodic Pigging 118
Inhibitor Treatments 118
Cleanliness 119
Means of Monitoring 119
Summary 120
References 121
Bibliography 121
Chapter 12: Dense phase CO2 corrosion 123
Background 123
CO2 Stream Composition 123
Corrosion in the Presence of Aqueous Phases 124
Pure CO2 and Water 124
Impurities and Formation of Corrosive Phases 125
Means of Corrosion Prediction 125
Method of Corrosion Mitigation 125
Normal Operation 125
Transport of Wet CO2 125
Accidental Ingress of Water 126
Depressurisation 126
Downhole Corrosion 126
Summary. 126
References 127
Bibliography 127
Chapter 13: Corrosion under insulation 128
Historical Context 128
Key Features 128
Key Parameters Affecting CUI 128
Water 128
Contaminants 129
Primary CUI Temperature Ranges 129
The Effect of Temperature on CUI 129
The Effect of Humidity and Dew Point – Sweating Corrosion 130
The Effect of Insulation Type on CUI 130
The Insulation System 130
CUI Prevention Methods 130
Protective Coatings 131
Organic Coatings for Carbon Steel Components 131
Thermal Spray Aluminium (TSA) 132
CUI Mitigation Strategy 132
Stainless Steel for Small Diameter Piping 132
Aluminium Foil Wrapping 133
Remove Unnecessary Insulation - Personnel Protection Cages 133
CUI Inspection 134
NDE/NDT Techniques to Detect CUI 135
Summary 135
References 136
Bibliography 136
Chapter 14: Metallic Materials Optimisation Routes 137
Background 137
Production Facilities 137
Drilling Components 137
Wells/Subsurface Components 138
Manifolds 138
Flowlines and Unprocessed Fluids Pipelines 138
Flexible Pipes 139
Process/Surface Facilities 140
Gas Treating Plants 140
Export Pipelines and Trunklines 140
Seals and Elastomers 140
The Operating Regimes 140
Production 140
Injection 141
System Corrosivity 141
CO2 Corrosion 141
H2S Corrosion 141
Oxygen Corrosion 141
Metallic Materials Optimisation Methodology 142
Materials options 142
Carbon and Low Alloy Steels (CLASs) 142
Low Cr Containing Steels 142
Families of 13Cr Steels 142
Other CRAs 142
Internal Corrosion Mitigation Methods 143
Corrosion Inhibition (CI) 143
Corrosion Allowance (CA) 143
pH Stabilisation 143
Internal Coating and Lining 143
Whole Life Cost (WLC) Analysis 144
Materials Optimisation Strategy 144
Summary 145
Reference 145
Bibliography 146
Chapter 15: Non-metallic Materials - Elastomer Seals and Non-metallic liners 147
Elastomer Seals 147
Commonly used Elastomer Materials for Upstream Hydrocarbon Service 147
Nitrile Rubber (NBR) 147
Hydrogenated Nitrile Rubber (HNBR) 148
Fluorocarbon Rubber (FKM) 148
Tetrafluoroethylene-Propylene Rubber (TFEP) 148
Perfluoroelastomers (FFKM) 148
Key Potential Failure Modes 148
Seal and Materials Selection 149
Degradation Due to Temperature and Chemical Environment 149
Extrusion 149
Decompression Damage 150
Project Specific Elastomer Seal Selection Guidelines 150
Non-metallic Liner Options for Corrosion Control 150
Reinforced Thermoplastic Pipe (RTP) 150
RTP Structure 150
RTP Qualification 151
RTP Installation 151
Thermoplastic Liners 151
Plastic Liner Installation 152
Plastic Liner Materials 152
Plastic Liner Qualification 152
Summary of Technology Capabilities 153
Other Technologies 153
“Hybrid” Solutions 153
Composite Lined Downhole Tubing 153
Flexible Pipes 154
The Carcass 154
Polymer Pressure Barrier/Sheath 154
Reinforcement Wires 154
External Plastic Sheath 155
Summary 156
Bibliography 156
Chapter 16: Cathodic Protection (CP) 157
Key Points of Effectiveness 157
Cathodic Protection in Environmental Waters 157
Design 158
Typical Design Considerations 158
Sacrificial Anode Materials 160
Impressed Current CP in Environmental Waters 161
General Considerations 161
Impressed Current Anode Materials 161
Cathodic Protection and Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HAC) 162
Monitoring and Inspection 162
Cathodic Protection of Structures in Contact with the Ground 162
Cathodic Protection Criteria 162
Cathodic Protection Design 163
Groundbed 163
Cathodic Protection of Well Casings 164
Cathodic Protection and AC Interference 165
Inspection and Testing 165
Internal Cathodic protection Systems 165
Summary 166
Terminologies 166
Polarization 166
Cancerous Deposit 166
Open Circuit Potential 166
IR Free Potential 166
References 166
Bibliography 167
Chapter 17 - Corrosion Risk Analysis 168
Risk 168
Bow Tie Concept 169
Risk Matrix 169
Corrosion RBA Process 170
Corrosion RBA – Input 171
Corrosion RBA – Analysis 171
An Example - Flowline Corrosion 172
An Example - Sulphide Stress Cracking 173
Localised Attack 173
Corrosion RBA – Output 173
Corrosion RBA - Overall Process 174
Ensuring Continual Fitness for Service 175
Risky Business 175
Behaviours 175
Bayes Theorem 176
Moving Forward 176
Summary 177
References 177
Chapter 18 - Corrosion and Integrity Management 178
Integrity Management (IM) 178
Overview of IM Elements and Practice 178
Risk and Hazard Evaluation 179
Implementation 179
Corrosion Management (CM) 180
Performance Management 181
Performance Indicators (PIs) 181
Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) 183
Performance Reviews 183
Data Management 183
Outdoor Facilities 183
Indoor/Enclosed Facilities 184
Data Collation and Representation 184
The Future 184
Summary 185
References 185
Bibliography 185
Chapter 19: Corrosion and Metallurgical Challenges in Hydrocarbon Production 187
Energy Viewpoint and the Role of Technology 187
Future Focus Areas and Horizon 187
Challenges in Materials and Corrosion technology 188
HPHT Reservoir Trends 188
Shortfalls in Technology Implementation and Knowledge Partnership 189
25Cr Super Duplex Stainless Steels 189
22Cr Duplex Stainless Steel 189
Alloy 718 and 725 190
Alloy 17-4PH 190
Super-martensitic 13%Cr Linepipe steels 190
Riser Systems 191
Summary 191
References 192
Bibliography 192
Abbreviations 193
INDEX