Corrosion and Materials in Hydrocarbon Production- A Compendium of Operational and EngineeringAspects
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More About This Title Corrosion and Materials in Hydrocarbon Production- A Compendium of Operational and EngineeringAspects

English

Comprehensively covers the engineering aspects of corrosion and materials in hydrocarbon production

This book captures the current understanding of corrosion processes in upstream operations and provides a brief overview of parameters and measures needed for optimum design of facilities. It focuses on internal corrosion occurring in hydrocarbon production environments and the key issues affecting its occurrence, including: the types and morphology of corrosion damage; principal metallic materials deployed; and mitigating measures to optimise its occurrence. The book also highlights important areas of progress and challenges, and looks toward the future of research and development to enable improved and economical design of facilities for oil and a gas production.

Written for both those familiar and unfamiliar with the subject—and by two authors with more than 60 years combined industry experience—this book covers everything from Corrosion Resistant Alloys (CRAs) to internal metal loss corrosion threats, corrosion in injection systems to microbiologically influenced corrosion, corrosion risk analysis to corrosion and integrity management, and more, notably: 

  • Comprehensively covers the engineering aspects of corrosion and materials in hydrocarbon production
  • Written by two, renowned experts in the field
  • Offers practical guide to those unfamiliar with the subject whilst providing a focused roadmap to addressing the topics in a precise and methodical manner
  • Covers all aspects of corrosion threat and remedial and mitigation measures in upstream hydrocarbon production applicable to sub-surface, surface, and transportation facilities
  • Outlines technology challenges that need further research as a pre-cursor to moving the industry forward.

Operational and Engineering Aspects of Corrosion and Materials in Hydrocarbon Production is an excellent guide for both practicing materials and corrosion engineers working in hydrocarbons production as well as those entering the area who may not be fully familiar with the subject. 

English

Bijan Kermani, PhD is managing director of KeyTech, UK since 1999 and a visiting professor at University of Leeds and previously at UCL. He has over 40 years' experience of materials, metallurgy and corrosion in the oil and gas and steel industries focusing on materials optimisation, corrosion mitigation and integrity management. In addition, he manages innovative and step changer projects for multinational companies worldwide. He is a NACE Fellow, Fellow of Institute of Corrosion (ICorr), Fellow of Institute of Materials (IOM3), recipient of NACE 2007 Technical Achievement Award, Chartered Engineer, and Instructor for various NACE International courses.

Don Harrop has over 40 years' experience working primarily in the oil and gas industry addressing a broad range of materials and corrosion issues through research, technology development and front-line engineering. He is a past President and Honorary Fellow of the UK Institute of Corrosion (ICorr) and the European Federation of Corrosion (EFC).

English

Forewords 11

Acknowledgement 12

Chapter 1: Introduction 14

Scope and Objectives 14

The Content 15

The Impact of Corrosion 15

The Overall Financial Impact 16

Principal Types of Corrosion in Hydrocarbon Production 16

Corrosion Threats 17

The Way Ahead: Positive Corrosion 17

Summary 18

References 19

Bibliography 19

Chapter 2: Carbon and low alloy steels 20

Steel Products 20

Structural Services 20

Pressure Containment 20

Development of Mechanical Properties 21

Heat Treatment 21

Normalising 21

Quenched and Tempering 21

Mechanical working. 21

Industrial Processes 22

Strengthening mechanisms 22

Solid Solution Strengthening 22

Grain Refinement 22

Mechanical Working 23

Dispersion Strengthening 23

Hardenability 23

Weldability 24

Linepipe Steels 24

Well Completion Downhole Tubulars 25

Internally Clad Materials 25

Summary 26

Bibliography 26

Chapter 3: Corrosion Resistant Alloys (CRAs) 28

Background 28

Alloying Elements, Microstructures and their Significance on Corrosion Performance 29

Alloying Elements 29

Improving Corrosion Resistance 29

Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number (PREN) 30

Schaeffler Diagram and its Application 30

Nickel and chromium equivalents 31

Common Types/Grades of CRA Used in the Hydrocarbon Production Systems 31

Nominal Compositions 31

Mechanical Properties and Strengthening Methods 32

Yield Strength 33

Bauschinger Effect 33

Yield Stress Derating with Temperature 34

Important Metallurgical Aspects of CRAs 34

Martensitic and Super Martensitic Stainless Steels (MSSs and SMSSs) 34

Duplex and Super Duplex Stainless Steels (DSSs and SDSSs) 35

Austenitic Stainless Steels (SSs) 35

Austenitic Fe and Ni Based Alloys 35

Titanium Alloys 36

Limits of Application 36

Selection Criteria 37

Selection Criteria Check List 37

Application of CRAs 37

Notable Points to Consider for Well Completion 38

Future Demands and Requirements 38

Summary 39

References 39

Bibliography 39

Chapter 4: Water Chemistry 40

Sources of Water 40

Water Chemistry 41

Other Impacts on Corrosivity 43

Mineral Scale 43

Bacterial analyses 43

Iron Sulphide 43

Other Chemicals 44

Water sampling locations and analysis techniques 44

Sampling 45

Interpretation of Results 46

Monitoring Corrosion Management Strategies 47

Influential Parameters in System Corrosivity 47

Summary 48

References 48

Bibliography 48

Chapter 5: Internal Metal Loss Corrosion Threats 50

CO2 Metal Loss Corrosion 50

The Mechanism 50

Types of Damage 51

Pitting 51

Mesa Type Attack 51

Flow-Induced Localised Corrosion 51

Key Influential Factors 52

Notable Parameters 52

The In-situ pH 53

The Effect of Organic Acid 53

Metal Loss CO2 Corrosion Prediction 53

Industry Practice 54

Metal Loss Corrosion in Mixed H2S/CO2 Containing Streams 55

Assessment Methods 56

Summary and Conclusions 57

References 57

Bibliography 58

Chapter 6: Environmental Cracking 60

Environmental Cracking Threat in Steels 60

EC Associated with Hydrogen Sulphide 60

Corrosion Implications and Mechanism 61

Types of H2S Corrosion Threat 62

Categories, Types, Manifestation, and Mitigation Measures of H2S EC Threats 62

Sulphide Stress Cracking (SSC): 62

Hydrogen Internal Pressure Effects 63

a. Hydrogen Blistering 63

b. HIC/SWC 63

c. SOHIC (Stress Oriented HIC) 65

Chloride Stress Corrosion cracking (Cl-SCC) 65

Cracking in Related Environments: 65

Operating Temperatures 65

Current Industry Practices 66

ISO 15156/NACE MR0175 66

Part 1 66

Part 2 66

Severity of Operating Conditions for CLASs 67

Key Governing Criteria 67

Part 3 67

Summary 68

Bibliography 68

Chapter 7: Corrosion in Injection Systems 69

The Intent 69

Injection Systems 69

Treated Water 70

Water Treatment Methods 71

Mechanical Treatment 71

Chemical Treatments 71

Oxygen Removal 71

Injectivity Problems, Erosion and Drag Reduction 72

Coagulants and filter aids 72

Bacterial growth and proliferation 72

Antifoam 72

Water Corrosivity 72

Water Quality 73

Means of Corrosion Prediction 73

Oldfield and Todd 73

Berger and Hau 74

The Appropriate Model 74

Materials Options 74

Tubing 74

CLAS 74

Low Cr Containing Steels 74

Plastic Coated Tubulars 75

Glass Reinforced Epoxy (GRE) Lined CLAS Tubing 75

CRAs 75

Pipelines and Piping 75

Bare CLAS 75

Internally Lined CLAS 76

CRAs 76

Supplementary Notes 76

Hydrotesting 76

Summary 78

References 79

Bibliography 79

Chapter 8: Corrosion Mitigation by the Use of Inhibitor Chemicals 80

Inhibitor Characteristics 80

Key Benefits 80

Inhibitor Formulation 81

Inhibitor Species and Functionality 81

Inhibitor Performance 82

Environmental Acceptance 84

Inhibitor Testing and Application 84

Operating Conditions 84

Inhibitor Testing/Selection 85

Inhibitor Application/Deployment 87

Continuous Injection 87

Field Evaluation 88

Wet Gas Lines 88

Downhole Inhibition 89

Summary 89

References 90

Bibliography 90

Chapter 9: Coating Systems 92

External Pipeline Coatings 92

Fusion-Bonded Epoxy (FBE) Coating 92

Polyolefin Coatings 93

Field Joint Coatings 94

Internal Coating and Lining 94

Plastic Coated Tubular (PCT) 94

Glass Reinforced Epoxy (GRE) Lined C-steel Tubing 95

Internal Coating of Tanks and Vessels 95

External Painting of Structures 95

Offshore Structures 95

Summary 96

References 96

Bibliography 97

Chapter 10: Corrosion Trending 98

The Purpose of Corrosion Trending 98

Corrosion Monitoring 99

Corrosion Rate Monitoring 99

Weight Loss Coupons 100

Electrical Resistance (ER) Probes 100

Electrochemical Methods 100

Locating Internal Corrosion Monitoring Devices 101

Erosion Rate Monitoring 103

Access Fittings 103

Cost Considerations 104

Safety Considerations 104

Corrosion Barrier Monitoring 104

Collection and Analysis of Real-Time Monitoring Data 105

Downhole Corrosion Monitoring 106

Inspection Techniques 107

Equipment Portability 107

Visualising Inspection Data 107

Intelligent Pigging 108

Future Considerations 108

Summary 109

References 109

Bibliography 109

Chapter 11: Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion 110

Main Features 110

The Primary Causes 111

Summary of Key Parameters 112

The Motive for Promotion of Corrosion by Micro-organisms 112

The Corrosion Process 112

Microbial Activity inside the Biofilms 113

Bridging surface to biofilm: 113

Summary Mechanism 114

Most Susceptible Locations and Conditions 115

Most MIC Prone Environments and Facilities: 115

Least MIC Prone Environments and Facilities: 115

Uncertain Limits and Conditions of Occurrence 115

Brief Overview 116

The Anticipated Damage Rate 117

Potential Prevention Measures 117

Biocide Treatments 117

Periodic Pigging 118

Inhibitor Treatments 118

Cleanliness 119

Means of Monitoring 119

Summary 120

References 121

Bibliography 121

Chapter 12: Dense phase CO2 corrosion 123

Background 123

CO2 Stream Composition 123

Corrosion in the Presence of Aqueous Phases 124

Pure CO2 and Water 124

Impurities and Formation of Corrosive Phases 125

Means of Corrosion Prediction 125

Method of Corrosion Mitigation 125

Normal Operation 125

Transport of Wet CO2 125

Accidental Ingress of Water 126

Depressurisation 126

Downhole Corrosion 126

Summary. 126

References 127

Bibliography 127

Chapter 13: Corrosion under insulation 128

Historical Context 128

Key Features 128

Key Parameters Affecting CUI 128

Water 128

Contaminants 129

Primary CUI Temperature Ranges 129

The Effect of Temperature on CUI 129

The Effect of Humidity and Dew Point – Sweating Corrosion 130

The Effect of Insulation Type on CUI 130

The Insulation System 130

CUI Prevention Methods 130

Protective Coatings 131

Organic Coatings for Carbon Steel Components 131

Thermal Spray Aluminium (TSA) 132

CUI Mitigation Strategy 132

Stainless Steel for Small Diameter Piping 132

Aluminium Foil Wrapping 133

Remove Unnecessary Insulation - Personnel Protection Cages 133

CUI Inspection 134

NDE/NDT Techniques to Detect CUI 135

Summary 135

References 136

Bibliography 136

Chapter 14: Metallic Materials Optimisation Routes 137

Background 137

Production Facilities 137

Drilling Components 137

Wells/Subsurface Components 138

Manifolds 138

Flowlines and Unprocessed Fluids Pipelines 138

Flexible Pipes 139

Process/Surface Facilities 140

Gas Treating Plants 140

Export Pipelines and Trunklines 140

Seals and Elastomers 140

The Operating Regimes 140

Production 140

Injection 141

System Corrosivity 141

CO2 Corrosion 141

H2S Corrosion 141

Oxygen Corrosion 141

Metallic Materials Optimisation Methodology 142

Materials options 142

Carbon and Low Alloy Steels (CLASs) 142

Low Cr Containing Steels 142

Families of 13Cr Steels 142

Other CRAs 142

Internal Corrosion Mitigation Methods 143

Corrosion Inhibition (CI) 143

Corrosion Allowance (CA) 143

pH Stabilisation 143

Internal Coating and Lining 143

Whole Life Cost (WLC) Analysis 144

Materials Optimisation Strategy 144

Summary 145

Reference 145

Bibliography 146

Chapter 15: Non-metallic Materials - Elastomer Seals and Non-metallic liners 147

Elastomer Seals 147

Commonly used Elastomer Materials for Upstream Hydrocarbon Service 147

Nitrile Rubber (NBR) 147

Hydrogenated Nitrile Rubber (HNBR) 148

Fluorocarbon Rubber (FKM) 148

Tetrafluoroethylene-Propylene Rubber (TFEP) 148

Perfluoroelastomers (FFKM) 148

Key Potential Failure Modes 148

Seal and Materials Selection 149

Degradation Due to Temperature and Chemical Environment 149

Extrusion 149

Decompression Damage 150

Project Specific Elastomer Seal Selection Guidelines 150

Non-metallic Liner Options for Corrosion Control 150

Reinforced Thermoplastic Pipe (RTP) 150

RTP Structure 150

RTP Qualification 151

RTP Installation 151

Thermoplastic Liners 151

Plastic Liner Installation 152

Plastic Liner Materials 152

Plastic Liner Qualification 152

Summary of Technology Capabilities 153

Other Technologies 153

“Hybrid” Solutions 153

Composite Lined Downhole Tubing 153

Flexible Pipes 154

The Carcass 154

Polymer Pressure Barrier/Sheath 154

Reinforcement Wires 154

External Plastic Sheath 155

Summary 156

Bibliography 156

Chapter 16: Cathodic Protection (CP) 157

Key Points of Effectiveness 157

Cathodic Protection in Environmental Waters 157

Design 158

Typical Design Considerations 158

Sacrificial Anode Materials 160

Impressed Current CP in Environmental Waters 161

General Considerations 161

Impressed Current Anode Materials 161

Cathodic Protection and Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HAC) 162

Monitoring and Inspection 162

Cathodic Protection of Structures in Contact with the Ground 162

Cathodic Protection Criteria 162

Cathodic Protection Design 163

Groundbed 163

Cathodic Protection of Well Casings 164

Cathodic Protection and AC Interference 165

Inspection and Testing 165

Internal Cathodic protection Systems 165

Summary 166

Terminologies 166

Polarization 166

Cancerous Deposit 166

Open Circuit Potential 166

IR Free Potential 166

References 166

Bibliography 167

Chapter 17 - Corrosion Risk Analysis 168

Risk 168

Bow Tie Concept 169

Risk Matrix 169

Corrosion RBA Process 170

Corrosion RBA – Input 171

Corrosion RBA – Analysis 171

An Example - Flowline Corrosion 172

An Example - Sulphide Stress Cracking 173

Localised Attack 173

Corrosion RBA – Output 173

Corrosion RBA - Overall Process 174

Ensuring Continual Fitness for Service 175

Risky Business 175

Behaviours 175

Bayes Theorem 176

Moving Forward 176

Summary 177

References 177

Chapter 18 - Corrosion and Integrity Management 178

Integrity Management (IM) 178

Overview of IM Elements and Practice 178

Risk and Hazard Evaluation 179

Implementation 179

Corrosion Management (CM) 180

Performance Management 181

Performance Indicators (PIs) 181

Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) 183

Performance Reviews 183

Data Management 183

Outdoor Facilities 183

Indoor/Enclosed Facilities 184

Data Collation and Representation 184

The Future 184

Summary 185

References 185

Bibliography 185

Chapter 19: Corrosion and Metallurgical Challenges in Hydrocarbon Production 187

Energy Viewpoint and the Role of Technology 187

Future Focus Areas and Horizon 187

Challenges in Materials and Corrosion technology 188

HPHT Reservoir Trends 188

Shortfalls in Technology Implementation and Knowledge Partnership 189

25Cr Super Duplex Stainless Steels 189

22Cr Duplex Stainless Steel 189

Alloy 718 and 725 190

Alloy 17-4PH 190

Super-martensitic 13%Cr Linepipe steels 190

Riser Systems 191

Summary 191

References 192

Bibliography 192

Abbreviations 193

INDEX

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