Title Details

Frank M. Dunnivant, PhD, is currently a professor in the Department of Chemistry, Whitman College. He has worked for several labs including the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, and the Swiss Federal Institute for Water and Waste Water Pollution (EAWAG). He has extensive experience with practical applications, research, and writing on environmental engineering and analytical science topics.

Elliot Anders holds a degree in Environmental Chemistry, works as a software engineer with a commitment to social justice and improving the environment, and is a cofounder of Educational Solutions, LLC.

Preface

Acknowledgements

Instructor/Student Resources

To the instructor

To the student

To the environmental professional

Acronyms

Glossary

Part I: Introduction

Chapter 1: Sources and Types of Pollutant, Why We need Modeling, and The Need to StudyHistorical Pollution Events

1.1 Introduction

1.2 The need for modeling of pollutants in environmental media

1.3 Pollution versus Contamination; Pollutant versus Contaminant

1.4 Pollution Classifications

1.5 Sources of Pollution

1.6 Historic Examples of where Fate and Transport Modeling are useful

Surface water:

Groundwater:

Atmosphere:

1.6.1 Pre-Environmental Movement and Legislation

1.6.2 Legacy Waste Sites

1.6.2.a INEEL Test Area North Deep Well Injection

1.6.2.b The release of nitrobenzene-based solvents at the Sondermulldeponie landfill

1.6.3 Post-Environmental Movement Era Accidents

1.6.3.a Methyl Isocyanate release in Bhopal, India

1.6.3.b Accident at the Nuclear Power Plant at Chernobyl, Ukraine

1.6.3.c A Chemical Spill on the Rhine River

1.6.3.d A Chemical Spill into the Tisza River Bordering Hungary and Romania

1.6.3.e The Kingston Fossil Plant Incident, Tennessee (USA)

1.6.3.f Lead in the Domestic Drinking Water of Flint River, Michigan

1.6.3.g Ajka Alumina Plant Accident (Hungary)

1.6.3.h Talvivaaara Mine Leak (Finland)

1.6.3.i Huangpu River (China)

1.6.3.j Tianjin Chemical Plant Explosion (China)

1.6.3.k Amimas River Mine Tailing Spill

1.6.3.l Duke Power Coal Ash Spill

1.7 Environmental Laws

Concepts and Exercises

Literature Cited and Consulted

Part II: Chemistry of Fate and Transport Phenomena

Chapter 2: Basic Chemical Processes in Pollutant Fate and Transport Modeling

2.1 The Liquid Medium: Water and the Water Cycle

2.2 Unique Properties of Water

2.3 Concentration units

2.4 Chemical aspects of environmental systems

2.4.1 pH

2.4.2 Activity

2.4.3 Solubility

2.4.4 Vapor pressure

2.4.5 Henry’s law constant

2.5 Reactions and Equilibrium

2.5.1 Acid-base chemistry

2.5.2 Oxidation-reduction chemistry

2.6 Complexation

2.7 Equilibrium Sorption Phenomena

2.7.1 Sorption surfaces

2.7.2 Organic Matter

2.7.3 Sorbates

2.7.4 Distribution and Partition Coefficients, Kd and Kp

2.7.5 Ion Exchange Phenomena for Ionic Pollutants

2.8 Transformation/Degradation Reactions

2.8.1 Abiotic Chemical Transformations/Degradations

2.8.2 Photochemical Transformation/Degradation Reactions

2.8.3 Nuclear

2.8.4 Biological

2.9 Fugacity Concepts and Modeling

2.10 Summary

Concepts and Exercises

Literature Cited and Consulted

Chapter 3: Quantitative Aspects of Chemistry Toward Modeling

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Calculation of the free metal ion concentration in natural waters

3.2.1 Activity

3.2.2 Calculating Chemical Equilibria

3.2.3 Equilibrium Applied to more Complex Speciation Problems

3.3 Methods for determining Kd and Kp

3.4 Kinetics of the sorption process

3.5 Sorption Isotherms

3.6 Kinetics of transformation reactions

3.7 Numerical Chemical Speciation Models

3.8 Putting it all together: Where chemistry enters into the modeling effort

Case I: A metal pollutant

Case II: Hydrophobic pollutants

3.9 The basic approach to Fate and Transport Modeling

Concepts and Exercises

Literature Cited and Consulted

Part III: Fate and Transport Models:

Chapter 4: An Overview of Pollutant Fate and Transport Modeling

4.1 Modeling approaches

4.1.1 Algebraic solutions

4.1.2 Modeling using differential equations

4.1.3 The General Approach for the Models used in this Text

4.1.4 Numerical Methods of Analysis

4.2 The Quality of Modeling Results

4.3 What do you do with your modeling results?

Literature Cited and Consulted

Chapter 5: Fate and Transport Concepts for Lake Systems

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Types of lakes and lake-forming events

5.3 Input Sources

5.4 Stratification of Lake Systems

5.5 Environmental Sampling of Lake Systems

5.6 Important Factors in the Modeling of Lakes: Conceptual Model Development

5.6.1 Definitions of Terms:

5.6.2 Detention times and effective mixing volumes

5.6.3 Chemical Reactions

5.6.4 Sedimentation

5.7. Two Basic Mathematical Models for Lakes

5.7.1 The Basic Model Development

5.7.2 Continuous (Step) Input Model

5.7.3 Instantaneous (Pulse) Input Model

5.8 Sensitivity Analysis

5.9 Limitations of Our Models

5.10 Remediation

5.11 Numerical Modeling Approaches for Large Lakes

5.12 Useful Algebraic Model formulation

Exercises and Problems

Appendix 5.A Model Derivations

Literature Cited and Consulted

Chapter 6: Fate and Transport of Pollutants in Rivers and Streams

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Examples of rivers and volumetric flows of water

6.3 Input sources

6.4 Sampling of Surface Waters

6.5 Important Factors in the Modeling of Streams: Conceptualization of Terms

6.5.1 Definition of terms

6.5.2 The stream channel

6.5.3 Mixing and dispersion in rivers

6.5.4 Removal reactions

6.6 Mathematical development of transport models

6.6.1 Solution for a Step Pollutant Input

6.6.2 Solution to a Pulse Pollutant Input

6.7 Sensitivity Analysis

6.8 Limitations of our models

6.8.1. One-dimensional versus two-dimensional models and inputs of pollutant plumes in wide streams

6.8.2. Volatilization of pollutants

6.9 Remediation of Polluted Streams Systems

Exercises and Problems

Appendix 6.A Model Derivations

6.A.1 Integrating Factors

6.A.2 Laplace Transforms

6.A.3 River Model – Step

6.A.4 River Model - Pulse

Literature Cited and Consulted

Chapter 7: Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curves in Streams: The Streeter-Phelps Equation

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Basic Input sources (wastewater flow rates and BOD levels)

7.3 Sampling of wastewater

7.4 Mathematical derivation of the Streeter Phelps model

7.5 Sensitivity Analysis

7.6 Limitations of our model

Average re-aeration rates for streams

Sedimentation of BOD particles

7.7 Remediation

7.8 One last note on Estuaries

Exercises and Problems

Appendix 7.A Model Derivations

Literature Cited and Consulted

Chapter 8: Fate and Transport Concepts for Groundwater Systems

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Input sources

8.3 Monitoring wells

Cable tool percussion method

Direct rotary drill method

Augers

Well casing, grouting, and sealing the well casing

Well development

Sampling equipment

But how good is our well?

8.4 Groundwater sampling equipment

8.5 Chemistry experiments used to support modeling efforts:

Kd and Kp Values

Relationship between K and the groundwater fate and transport equation

Column studies for evaluating pollutant transport in subsurface media

8.6 Direction of water flow (the three-point problem)

8.7 Physical Parameters important in pollutant fate and transport

Sources of dispersion in geological media

A Case Study: The INEEL experiment

Towards a universal estimate technique for dispersion

8.8 Derivation of Mathematical models for Groundwater

8.8.1 Step Pollutant Input into a Groundwater System pulse model

8.8.2 Instantaneous Pollutant Input to a Groundwater System

8.7.3 More realistic but complex models: 2-D and 3-D models

8.9 Sensitivity analysis

8.10 Limitations of our models

8.11 Remediation

8.12 Numerical models

Concepts and Problems

Literature Cited and Consulted

Chapter 9: Fate and Transport Concepts Atmosphere Systems

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Input Sources

9.3 Atmospheric Sampling Equipment and Efforts

9.4 Important Factors in the Modeling of Atmospheric Pollution: Conceptual Model Development

9.4.1 One- versus two- versus three-dimensional models

9.4.2 Mixing and dispersion in atmospheric systems

9.5 Mathematical development of two basic models

9.5.1 Step Input (Plume Model) of Pollutant

9.5.2 Instantaneous Input (Pulse or Puff Model) of Pollution

9.6 Sensitivity Analysis

9.7.1 Limitations of our model

9.7.1 Chemistry

9.7.2 Dispersion and mixing

9.7.3 Wind velocity

9.8 Remediation

9.9 Models used by Professionals

Concepts and Exercises

Literature Cited and Consulted

Chapter 10 More Advanced Modeling and Regulatory Modeling

Raymond Whittemore

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Generic Model Types

10.3 Model Availability

10.4 Atmospheric Quality Models

10.5 Surface Water models

10.6 Large Scale Watershed Models

10.7 Sub-surface or Groundwater Models

10.8 Modeling of Toxic Substances

10.9 Human Health Risk Assessment

10.10 Other Useful Regulatory Models

Concepts

Exercises

Literature Cited and Consulted

Part IV: Toxicology and Risk Assessment:

Chapter 11 Toxicology, Risk Assessment, Cost Benefit Analysis, and Life Cycle Assessment

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Toxicology

11.3 Risk Assessment

11.3.1 The Concept of Risk

11.3.2 Dose rates from various sources

11.3.2.a Ingestion of pollutants from drinking water

11.3.2.b Ingestion of water while swimming

11.3.2.c Dermal contact with pollutants in water while swimming

11.3.2.d Ingestion of pollutants in soil

11.3.2.e Intake from dermal contact with pollutants in soil

11.3.2.f Inhalation of airborne (vapor phase) pollutants

11.3.2.g Ingestion of contaminated fish and shellfish

11.3.2.h Ingestion of contaminated fruits and vegetables

11.3.2.i Ingestion of contaminated meat, eggs, and dairy products

11.3.3 Health Risk Calculations for Carcinogens

11.3.4 Health Risk Calculations for Non-Carcinogens

11.3.5 Bioconcentration Calculations

11.3.6 Putting It All Together: Margin of Error (Uncertainty) of the Entire Estimation Process

11.3.7 Connecting Fate and Transport Predictions with Risk Assessment

11.4 Life Cycle Assessment

11.5 Benefic-Cost Analysis

11.6 Summary

Concepts and Exercises

Literature Cited and Consulted

Part V: Environmental Movements and Laws:

Chapter 12: U.S. Environmental Laws

12.1 Environmental Movements in the United States

12.2 The History of the Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA): Administrators and Accomplishments

12.3 Major U.S. Environmental Laws

12.3.1 The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)

12.3.2 The Air Quality Act, The Clean Air Act, and Amendments

12.3.3 The National Environmental Policy Act

12.3.4 The Solid Waste Disposal Act, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), and Amendments

12.3.5 Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act)

12.3.6 The Federal Water Pollution Control Act, the Clean Water Restoration Act, the Safe Drinking Water Act, and Amendments

12.3.7 The Toxic Substances Control Act

12.3.8 The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

12.3.9 The Oil Pollution Act

12.3.10 The Pollution Prevention Act

12.3.11 The Endangered Species Act of 1966 and Amendments

12.3.12 Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA) of 1972

12.4 EPA’s Record

12.5 Environmental Permitting and Compliance

12.6 International Agreements/Treaties Involving the U.S.

12.6.1 U.S. – Canada Environmental Agreements

12.6.2 Multinational Agreements

12.7 Summary

Exercises

Literature Cited and Consulted

Chapter 13: Environmental Policy in the European Union

13.1 Introduction to the European Union

13.2 The Environment and the European Union

13.3 The Early Stages of the EU’s Environmental Efforts

13.4 Existing Environmental Legislation

13.5 Waste Management Legislation

13.6 Water Legislation

13.7 Air Quality Legislation

13.8 Environmental Disasters

Chapter 14: Environmental Laws in China

Zeyu Liu and Yi Xu (Suzy)

14.1 Environmental Law and Policy in the People’s Republic of China

14.2 Brief Introduction to China

14.3 Economy and the Environment

14.4 History of Environmental Law and Policy

14.5 Existing Environmental Law and Policy

14.6 Challenges and the Future of Environmental Governance

14.7 Can China take on the leading role in the global environmental governance?

Part VI: World Class Pollutants:

Chapter 15: World Class Pollutants

15.1 Hg

15.1.1 Sources

15.1.2 Production/Use

15.1.3 Fate and Environmental Distribution

15.1.4 Health effects

15.2 Pb

15.2.1 Sources

15.2.2 Production/Use

15.2.3 Fate

15.2.4 Environmental Distribution

15.2.5 Health Effects

15.3 PCBs

15.3.1 Sources

15.3.2 Production/Use

15.3.3 Fate and Environmental Distribution

15.3.4 Health Effects

15.4 DDT

15.4.1 Sources

15.4.2 Production/Use

15.4.3 Fate

15.4.4 Environmental Distribution

15.4.5 Health Effects

15.5 Endocrine Disruptors

15.5.1 Sources

15.5.2 Uses and Points of Contact

15.5.3 Fate and Environmental Distribution

15.5.4 Health Effects

15.6 Plastics

15.7 Carbon Dioxide and Climate Change

Part VII: Supporting Laboratory Exercises

Chapter 16 Laboratory Experiments

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Keeping a Legally Defensible Laboratory Notebook Quarter/Semester long experiments

16.3 Creation of Natural Organic Matter (NOM)

16.4 Winogradsky Column: A Microcosm of Aquatic Environments Supporting Laboratory Experiments

16.5 The Determination of Alkalinity in Water Samples

16.6 Total Suspended and Dissolved Solids in Water Samples

16.7 The Determination of Hardness in a Water Sample

16.8 The Determination of Dissolved Oxygen in Water using the Winkler Method (Iodiometric Titration Method)

16.9 The determination of the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of sewage influent: BOD5 and/or BOD¬20

16.10 Determination of a Clay-Water Distribution Coefficient for Copper

16.11 The measurement of dispersion in a simulated river system

16.12 The measurement of dispersion and sorption in a simulated groundwater system

16.13 A Field Study of A Stream