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PART I. CONCEPTIONS OF CURRICULUM.

CHAPTER 1. THE HUMANISTIC CURRICULUM.

Characteristics of the Humanistic Curriculum.

Purpose.

Role of the Teacher.

Directions in Humanistic Curriculum.

A Confluent Curriculum.

Consciousness and Transcendency.

Responses to Depersonalization.

Psychological Foundations of the Humanistic Curriculum.

Third Force Psychology.

Historical Antecedents to the Humanistic Curriculum.

Ancient Greeks and Romans.

Traditional Humanities.

Progressive Education.

Spiritual Images.

Criticisms of the Humanistic Curriculum.

Concluding Comments.

CHAPTER 2. THE SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIONIST CURRICULUM.

Characteristics of the Social Reconstructionist Curriculum.

Purpose.

Role of the Teacher.

Social Reconstruction in Practice.

Changing the Community.

Freire’s Social Reconstructionism.

Neo-Marxists.

Futurologists.

Social Adaptation versus Social Reconstruction.

Psychological Foundations of Social Reconstruction.

Cultural Psychology as a Source.

Psychoanalytical Psychology and Social Reconstruction.

Historical Antecedents to Social Reconstruction.

Criticisms of Social Reconstructionism.

Concluding Comments.

CHAPTER 3. THE SYSTEMIC CURRICULUM.

Alignment.

Accountability.

Standards-Based Curriculum.

Policies for Standards-Based Curriculum.

Standards-Based Curriculum in the Classroom.

Psychological Foundations of the Systemic Curriculum.

Historical Antecedents to the Systemic Curriculum.

Consequences of Systemic Curriculum.

Concluding Comments.

CHAPTER 4. THE ACADEMIC CURRICULUM.

Approaches to the Academic

Curriculum.

The Forms of Knowledge Approach.

Structure in the Disciplines Approach.

Reaction against a Structure of Knowledge.

Revival of the Disciplines Approach.

Liberal Arts and the Academic Core.

Cultural Literacy.

Making Subject Matter More Appealing to Growing Minds.

Psychological Foundations of the Academic Curriculum.

Historical Antecedents of the Academic Curriculum.

Concluding Comments.

PART II. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT.

CHAPTER 5. DECIDING WHAT SHOULD BE TAUGHT.

Arena for Deciding What to Teach.

Levels of Decision Making.

Curriculum at Different Levels.

Contexts for Development of Curriculum.

Range of Activity.

Development of Materials.

State, Regional, and Local Curriculum Planning.

Institutional Curriculum Planning.

Functions of the Curriculum.

Determining What to Teach.

Rational and Technical Models in Curriculum Decision Making.

Needs Assessment Model.

The Futuristic Model.

The Rational Model.

The Vocational or Training Model.

Alternative Approaches to Determining Curriculum Purposes.

Disjointed Incrementalism.

Emergent Approaches in Curriculum Decision Making.

A Comment on Models and Approaches for Curriculum Building.

Concluding Comments.

CHAPTER 6. DEVELOPING AND SELECTING LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES.

Standards for Teaching Impact Classroom Curriculum Development.

Principles for Developing Learning Opportunities.

Learning Opportunities for Higher Order Thinking.

Transfer and Problem Solving.

Creativity.

Creating New Knowledge.

Procedures for Developing Learning Activities.

Current Orientations in Developing Learning Activities.

Criteria for Selecting Learning Activities.

Philosophical Criteria.

Psychological Criteria.

Political Criteria.

Practicality as a Criterion.

Scientifically Based Research Criteria.

Criticisms of Textbooks and Learning Opportunities.

Criticisms of Criteria for Selecting Learning Opportunities.

Concluding Comments.

APERTURE 6. HOW TECHNOLOGY IS USED WITH CURRICULUM ORIENTATIONS.

Technology in Humanistic Classrooms.

Social Reconstruction and Technology.

Technology in a Systemic Curriculum.

Technology in the Academic Curriculum.

Building Web Sites.

CHAPTER 7. ORGANIZING LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES.

Key Concepts in Curriculum Organization.

Organizing Centers.

Organizing Elements.

Principles for Sequencing Centers and Activities Related to Elements.

Organizing Structures.

Structure at the Institutional Level.

Structure at the Classroom Level.

Organizational Patterns and Conceptions of the Curriculum

Unified Disciplines: The New Academic Pattern.

Empirical Studies of the Effects of Patterns.

Issues in Curriculum Organization.

Concluding Comments.

PART III. CURRICULUM MANAGEMENT.

CHAPTER 8. MANAGING CURRICULUM.

Schools and the Institutionalized Curriculum.

Curriculum Change in the Context of Restructuring.

Roles in Restructuring Curriculum.

The Principal as Director of Learning.

The Principal in Shared Leadership.

Department Heads in Curriculum Management.

Administrative Arrangements.

Stratifying Students.

Staffing Patterns and Scheduling.

Supplementary Personnel.

Nongrading.

Facilities.

The Middle School.

Alternative, Magnet, Charter, and Specialist Schools.

Directions in the Reform of School Organizations.

Options in the Schools.

Administration for Instructional Effectiveness.

Coordinating the Curriculum.

Effective Research and Curriculum Policy.

Concluding Comments.

CHAPTER 9. EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM.

Models for Evaluation.

Consensus Models (Traditional and Technical Evaluation).

Pluralistic Models (Humanistic and Social Reconstructionist Evaluation).

Controversial Technical Issues in Curriculum Evaluation.

The Form of Objectives (Goals, Standards, Benchmarks, and Indicators).

Measurement of Intended Outcomes versus Goal-Free Evaluation.

Norm-Referenced Tests and Criterion-Referenced Tests.

Tests and Invasion of Privacy.

Authentic Assessment of Student Performance.

Assessment as Learning.

Techniques for Collecting Data.

Measuring Affect.

Sampling.

Hazards in Conducting Traditional Evaluation.

Value Added Assessment.

Concluding Comments.

CHAPTER 10. THE POLITICS OF CURRICULUM MAKING.

Curriculum Policy.

The Politics Involved.

Political Decisions about What Will Be Taught.

Concepts for Interpreting the Process of Political Decision Making.

The Professionalization of Reform.

Forces of Stability.

Constraints on Policy.

Participants in Determining Curriculum Policy.

School-Based Participants.

Community Participants.

State Agencies.

Testing Agencies.

Publishers.

The Courts.

The Federal Government.

Foundations.

Special Interests.

Conflicts in Curriculum Control.

Concluding Comments.

PART IV. ISSUES AND TRENDS.

CHAPTER 11. CURRENT ISSUES DEMANDING RESPONSES.

Curriculum for Thinking.

The Focus of a Thinking Curriculum.

Curriculum Competition: An International Comparison.

Invidious Comparisons.

Vocational Education.

Contrasting Purposes for Vocational Education.

Access to Vocational Education.

Content of Vocational Education.

Reorganizing Vocational Education.

Trends in Vocational Education.

Moral Education.

Phenix’s Basic Questions in Moral Education.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development.

Character Education.

School Safety.

Concluding Comments.

CHAPTER 12. DIRECTIONS IN THE SUBJECT FIELDS.

Mathematics.

Mathematics in Our Schools.

Trends in Mathematics.

Science.

Evolution of Science Teaching.

New Approaches in Science Education.

Recommendations for the Future Science Curriculum.

Physical and Health Education.

Its Place in the Curriculum.

Guidelines for Future Physical Education Programs.

English.

English as a Subject.

Current Trends in the Teaching of English.

Reading.

The Curriculum of Reading.

Trends and Directions.

History and Social Studies.

History as a Subject.

An Evaluation of History Curriculum.

History and Geography in the 1990s.

History and the Social Studies in the Standards Movement.

Social Studies.

The Future of Social Studies.

Foreign Language.

The Rise and Fall of Foreign Language.

Efforts to Revive Language Instruction.

The Arts.

Concluding Comments.

PART V. CURRICULUM INQUIRY: RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT.

CHAPTER 13. A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF CURRICULUM MAKING.

Curriculum Historians.

Context for Formulation of the Curriculum Field.

Founders of the Field of Curriculum.

Herbartism and the McMurrys.

Basic Tenets of Herbartism.

The McMurrys’ Thinking.

Dewey’s Opposition to Herbartism.

Dewey’s School.

Dewey’s Curriculum.

Scientific Curriculum Making: Franklin Bobbitt and Werrett W. Charters.

Societal Influences on the Scientific Movement.

Key Ideas of Scientific Curriculum Making.

Bobbitt’s Contribution to Curriculum Making.

Charters’s Contribution to the Curriculum Field.

Improvement of Instruction.

Local Development of Curriculum.

The Course of Study Movement.

Caswell’s Influence on the Curriculum Field.

Rational Curriculum Making.

Tyler’s Curriculum Inquiry.

Feminine Enactment of Curriculum.

Hilda Taba.

Mary Sheldon Barnes.

Lucy Maynard Salmon.

Lucy Sprague Mitchell.

Concluding Comments.

CHAPTER 14. THE PROMISE OF THEORY AND INQUIRY IN CURRICULUM.

State of the Field.

The Need for Curriculum Theory.

The Need for Curriculum Conceptions.

The Need for Studies of Correlation and Integration.

The Need for Studies of Sequence.

The Need for Analyzing Education Objectives (Standards).

The Need for Process–Product Research.

Directions in Curriculum Inquiry.

Forms of Inquiry.

Synoptic Activity as Curriculum Inquiry.

Inquiry in the School and Classroom.

Narrative.

Qualitative Inquiry in School Settings.

Action Research as Curriculum Inquiry.

Concluding Comments.

NAME INDEX.

SUBJECT INDEX.