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More About This Title Designing Effective Instruction, Seventh Edition
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Gary R. Morrison is the author of Designing Effective Instruction, 7th Edition, published by Wiley.
Steven M. Ross is the author of Designing Effective Instruction, 7th Edition, published by Wiley.
- English
English
Preface ix
About the Authors xiii
Chapter One Introduction to the Ins tructional Design Process Xxvi
Getting Started xxvi
Why Instructional Design? 2
Why Do Instructional Design? 2
What Are the Benefits of Instructional Design? 3
Applying the Process to Both Academic Education and Training Programs 4
What Is Instructional Design? 6
Education versus Training 8
Instructional Design and Human Performance Technology 8
Contexts for Instructional Design 9
Premises Underlying the Instructional Design Process 10
Overview of Our Design Model 14
Instructional Problems 15
Learner and Context 15
Task Analysis 15
Instructional Objectives 15
Content Sequencing 15
Instructional Strategies 16
Designing the Message 16
Development of the Instruction 16
Evaluation Instruments 16
Ongoing Processes 18
Who’s Who in the Instructional Design Process 19
Instructional Designer 19
Subject-Matter Expert (SME) 19
Evaluator 19
Answering the Critics 20
Questions…Questions…Questions 22
Summary 22
The ID Process 23
Application 23
Answers 23
References 24
Chapter Two Identifying the Need for Instruction 26
Getting Started 26
Is Instruction the Answer? 28
Needs Assessment 29
Types of Needs and Data Sources 31
Conducting a Needs Assessment 34
Example Needs Assessment Plan 37
Goal Analysis 38
Six Steps of Goal Analysis 39
Comparing Goal Analysis and Needs Assessment 41
Performance Assessment 41
Summary 43
The ID Process 44
Application 44
Answers 45
Quality Management 46
Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 46
References 47
Chapter Three Learner and Contextual Analysis 50
Getting Started 50
Types of Learner Characteristics 52
General Characteristics 53
Specific Entry Characteristics 53
Learning Styles 54
Academic Information 55
Personal and Social Characteristics 55
Culturally Diverse Learners 56
Learners with Disabilities 57
Adult Learners 58
Contextual Analysis 61
Types of Context 61
Conducting a Contextual Analysis 63
Summary 65
The ID Process 65
Application 66
Answers 66
Quality Management 66
Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 66
References 68
Chapter Four Task Analysis 72
Getting Started 72
Task Analysis 74
Preparing to Conduct a Task Analysis 75
Content Structures 75
Topic Analysis 77
Analyzing a Topic 78
Procedural Analysis 80
Going Beyond Procedural Analysis 84
The Critical Incident Method 87
Conducting a Task Analysis 89
Serving as Your Own SME 89
Techniques for Gathering Data 89
Recording Methods 90
Instructional Goals 95
Summary 91
The ID Process 91
Application 92
Answer 92
Quality Management 94
Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 95
References 97
Chapter Five Instructional Objectives 100
Getting Started 100
Function of Objectives 100
Three Objective Domains 102
Cognitive Domain 102
Psychomotor Domain 103
Affective Domain 104
Interrelation of Domains 104
Developing Instructional Objectives 105
The Basis for Objectives 105
Approaches to Objectives 106
Writing Objectives in the Cognitive Domain 106
Behavioral Objectives 106
Optional Parts 107
Cognitive Objectives 109
Writing Objectives for the Psychomotor Domain 112
Writing Objectives for the Affective Domain 113
Classifying Objectives 114
Expanded Performance–Content Matrix Model 114
Pros and Cons of Writing Objectives 116
Summary 117
The ID Process 117
Application 118
Answers 118
Quality Management 119
Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 119
References 121
Chapter Six Designing the Instruction: Sequencing 122
Getting Started 122
The Posner and Strike Sequencing Schemes 124
Learning-Related Sequencing 124
World-Related Sequencing 126
Concept-Related Sequencing 127
Elaboration Theory Sequencing 130
Content Expertise Sequencing 130
Task Expertise Sequencing 130
From Objectives to Sequencing 130
Summary 131
The ID Process 131
Application 131
Answers 132
Quality Management 132
Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 132
References 134
Chapter Seven Designing the Instruction: Strategies 136
Getting Started 136
Why Instructional Strategies? 138
Designing an Instructional Strategy 138
Foundations for the Prescriptions 138
Generative Strategies 139
Prescriptions for Instructional Strategies 140
Prescriptions for Teaching Facts 142
Prescriptions for Teaching Concepts 144
Prescriptions for Teaching Principles and Rules 145
Prescriptions for Teaching Procedures 147
Prescriptions for Teaching Interpersonal Skills 150
Prescriptions for Teaching Attitudes 151
Summary 152
The ID Process 153
Applications 153
Answers 154
Quality Management 154
Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 155
References 157
Chapter Eight Designing the Instructional Message 160
Getting Started 160
Preinstructional Strategies 162
Pretests 163
Objectives 163
Overviews 164
Advance Organizers 165
Message Design for Text 166
Signaling the Text’s Schema 166
Explicit Signals 168
Typographical Signals 168
Pictures and Graphics in Instruction 172
Effectiveness 172
The Function of Pictures 174
Using Pictures in Instruction 178
Summary 179
The ID Process 179
Applications 179
Answers 180
Quality Management 180
Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 181
References 183
Chapter Nine Developing Instructional Materials 186
Getting Started 186
Starting the Development of the Instruction 188
Staying Focused 188
Heuristics for Developing Instruction 189
Make It Concrete 190
Control the Step Size 191
Use Appropriate Pacing 192
Maintain Consistency 192
Use Cues 193
Putting Pen to Paper or Fingers to Keyboard 193
Preinstructional Strategy 193
Initial Presentation 194
Generative Strategy 194
Transitions 194
Cognitive Load 195
Group Presentations 203
Strengths 203
Limitations 203
Applications 204
Guidelines for Effective Lecturing 204
Distance Education 206
Self-Paced Learning 208
Strengths 209
Limitations 209
Guidelines for Effective Learning 210
Design Checklist 210
Changing Roles 211
Small-Group Formats 211
Strengths 211
Limitations 212
Formats 212
Summary 214
The ID Process 215
Application 216
Answer 216
Quality Management 216
Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 216
References 217
Chapter Ten Design Considerations for Technology-Based Instruction 222
Getting Started 222
Affordances of Technology-Based Instruction 224
Individualized Computer- and Web-Based Instruction 224
Drill-and-Practice 225
Tutorials 225
Simulations 226
Games 226
Hypermedia 227
Design Considerations for Individualized Computer and Web-Based Instruction 227
Interface Design 228
Learner Control 228
Feedback 230
Remediation 232
Designing Interactions 232
Using Multimedia 236
Design Considerations for Group-Based Distance Instruction 240
An Individualized Approach to Distance Instruction 240
A Group Approach to Distance Instruction 240
Avoiding the Shovelware Trap 241
Summary 242
The ID Process 242
Application 242
Answer 243
Quality Management 243
Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 243
References 245
Chapter Eleven the Many Faces Of Evaluation 250
Getting Started 250
Purposes of Evaluation 252
Formative Evaluation 252
Summative Evaluation 255
Confirmative Evaluation 256
Relationship Among Formative, Summative, and Confirmative Evaluations 256
The Role of Instructional Objectives 257
Multiple Data Sources Equal Increased Information 257
Processes and Products 257
Time of Testing 258
When to Evaluate 258
Relationship Between Evaluation and Instructional Objectives 258
Matching Measures to Objectives 259
Suggested Measures for Alternative Outcomes 259
Validity and Reliability of Tests 261
Validity 261
Reliability 262
Relationship Between Validity and Reliability 265
Standards of Achievement 265
Relative Standards 265
Absolute Standards 266
Measurement Issues 267
Standards Versus Conventional Measurement 267
Student Self-Evaluation 269
Pretesting 269
Testing for Prerequisites 269
Testing for Improvement in Performance 270
Benefits of Pretesting 270
Whether or Not to Pretest 272
Summary 272
The ID Process 273
Application 274
Answer 274
Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 275
References 276
Chapter Twelve Developing Evaluation Instruments 278
Getting Started 278
Testing Knowledge 280
The Relationship Between Evaluation and Instructional Objectives 280
Objective Tests 281
Constructed-Response Tests 287
Testing Skills and Behavior 293
Preliminary Considerations 295
Types of Skill/Behavior Assessments 296
Attitudes 305
Two Uses of Attitude Assessment 305
Observation/Anecdotal Records 306
Assessment of Behavior 306
Questionnaire/Survey 307
Interview 308
Summary 310
The ID Process 310
Applications 311
Answers 311
Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 311
References 314
Chapter Thirteen Using Evaluation to Enhance Programs: Conducting Formative and Summative Evaluations 316
Getting Started 316
A Basic Model for Formative Evaluation 318
Purposes 318
Audience 319
Issues 319
Resources 319
Evidence 320
Data-Gathering Techniques 320
Analysis 321
Reporting 322
Types of Formative Evaluation 323
Connoisseur-Based Studies 323
Decision-Oriented Studies 324
Objectives-Based Studies 325
Public Relations–Inspired Studies 325
Constructivist-Oriented Process 325
Stages of Formative Evaluation 326
Summative Evaluation: Determining Program Outcomes 327
Evaluation Versus Research 327
Program Effectiveness 328
Summative Evaluation Methods 330
Program Efficiency 331
Learner Time Required 331
Faculty and Staff Required 332
Use of Facilities 332
Program Costs 333
Developmental Costs 333
Operational Costs 334
Instructional Cost Index 335
Confirmative Evaluation: Determining Outcomes Over Time 336
Approaches to Confirmative Evaluation 337
Educational Programs 338
Training Programs 339
Reporting Results of Summative and Confirmative Evaluations 340
Summary 341
The ID Process 342
Application 343
Answer 343
Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 344
References 345
Chapter Fourteen Learning Theory and Instructional Theory 348
Getting Started 348
Introduction 350
Learning Theory 351
Instructional Theory 351
Instructional Design Model 352
Applications of Instructional Theories and Models 352
Types of Learning Theory 353
Cognitive Theory 357
Summary 364
The ID Process 365
Application 367
Answer 368
Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 368
References 369
Chapter Fifteen Planning For Instructional Implementation 372
Getting Started 372
Planned Change 372
Innovation 374
Communication 375
Time 375
Social System 376
The CLER Model 376
Configuration 377
Linkages 378
Environment 378
Resources 378
Planning the Implementation with the CLER Model 381
Configuration 381
Linkages 381
Environment 381
Resources 382
Analysis of the Situation 382
Implementation Plan 382
Tichy’s TPC (Technical, Political, Cultural) Framework 383
Developmental Stages and Information Decision Process Models 383
Implementation Decisions 384
Program Promotion 384
Instructional Delivery 385
Materials 386
Instructors 387
Scheduling 387
Instructor Training 387
Role of Supervisors 387
Summary 388
The ID Process 388
Application 388
Answers 389
Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 389
References 390
FOR SCREEN VIEWING IN BPA ONLY
Contents xxv
Chapter Sixteen Instructional Design Project Management 392
Getting Started 392
Project Management 394
Project Planning 394
Management Activities 398
Completing the Project 399
Project Agreement and Proposal Preparation 400
Instructional Design Shortcuts 405
Flexibility of the Instructional Design Process 405
Instructional Design in Organizations 405
Purposes and Role 406
Placement within the Organization 406
Budgetary Support 407
Working with the Subject-Matter Expert and Consultants 407
The Subject-Matter Expert in Different Roles 408
Working with Other Consultants and Team Members 409
Legal Considerations in ID Project Management 410
Contracts 410
State and Federal Mandates 410
Common Legal Problems in Training 410
Summary 412
The ID Process 412
Application 413
Answers 413
Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 413
References 414
APPENDIX A Sample Instructional Design Documentation 415
APPENDIX B A Sample Instructional Unit 425
Glossary 435
Index 439